The hallmark of a vertebrate immune system is the ability to discriminate "self" from "non-self" (foreign). This property has led to the evolution of a system requiring multiple signals to achieve optimal immune activation (Janeway, Cold Spring Harbor Symp. Quant. Biol. 54:1-14 (1989)). T cell-B cell interactions are essential to the immune response. Levels of many cohesive molecules found on T cells and B cells increase during an immune response (Springer et al., A. Rev. Immunol. 5:223-252 (1987); Shaw and Shimuzu, Current Opinion in Immunology, Eds. Kindt and Long, 1:92-97 (1988)); and Hemler Immunology Today 9:109-113 (1988)). Increased levels of these molecules may help explain why activated B cells are more effective at stimulating antigen-specific T cell proliferation than are resting B cells (Kaiuchi et. al., J. Immunol. 131:109-114 (1983); Kreiger et al., J. Immunol. 135:2937-2945 (1985); McKenzie, J. Immunol. 141:2907-2911 (1988); and Hawrylowicz and Unanue, J. Immunol. 141:4083-4088 (1988)).
The generation of a T lymphocyte ("T cell") immune response is a complex process involving cell-cell interactions (Springer et al., A. Rev. Immunol. 5:223-252 (1987)), particularly between T and accessory cells such as B cells, and production of soluble immune mediators (cytokines or lymphokines) (Dinarello and Mier, New Engl. Jour. Med 317:940-945 (1987)). This response is regulated by several T-cell surface receptors, including the T-cell receptor complex (Weiss et al., Ann. Rev. Immunol. 4:593-619 (1986)) and other "accessory" surface molecules (Springer et al., (1987) supra). Many of these accessory molecules are naturally occurring cell surface differentiation (CD) antigens defined by the reactivity of monoclonal antibodies on the surface of cells (McMichael, Ed., Leukocyte Typing III, Oxford Univ. Press, Oxford, N.Y. (1987)).
Antigen-independent intercellular interactions involving lymphocyte accessory molecules are essential for an immune response (Springer et al., (1987), supra). For example, binding of the T cell-associated protein, CD2, to its ligand LFA-3, a widely expressed glycoprotein (reviewed in Shaw and Shimuzu, supra), is important for optimizing antigen-specific T cell activation (Moingeon et al., Nature 339:314 (1988)).
An important adhesion system involves binding of the LFA-1 glycoprotein found on lymphocytes, macrophages, and granulocytes (Springer et al., (1987), supra; Shaw and Shimuzu (1988), supra) to its ligands ICAM-1 (Makgoba et al., Nature 331:86-88 (1988)) and ICAM-2 (Staunton et al., Nature 339:61-64 (1989)). The T cell accessory molecules CD8 and CD4 strengthen T cell adhesion by interaction with MHC class I (Norment et al.,Nature 336:79-81 (1988)) and class II (Doyle and Strominger, Nature 330:256-259 (1987)) molecules, respectively. "Homing receptors" are important for control of lymphocyte migration (Stoolman, Cell 56:907-910 (1989)).
The VLA glycoproteins are integrins which appear to mediate lymphocyte functions requiring adhesion to extracellular matrix components (Hemler, supra). The CD2/LFA-3, LFA-1/ICAM-1 and ICAM-2, and VLA adhesion systems are distributed on a wide variety of cell types (Springer et al., (1987), supra; Shaw and Shimuzu, (1988,) supra and Hemler, (1988), supra).
Numerous in vitro studies have demonstrated that cytokines are involved in the generation of alloreactive effector cells. For example, membrane bound IL-4 and soluble IL-4 receptor were administered separately to mice and were shown to augment the lymphoproliferative response (William C. Fanslow et al. "Regulation of Alloreactivity in vivo by IL-4 and the soluble Il-4 receptor" J. Immunol. 147:535-540 (1991)). Specifically, administration of IL-4 to BALB.backslash.c mice resulted in slight augmentation of the lymphoproliferative response. In contrast, the soluble IL-4 receptor suppressed this response to allogeneic cells in a dose dependent manner. Moreover, a neutralizing antibody against IL-4 and another against soluble IL-4 receptor were effective inhibitors of the lymphoproliferative response.
It was proposed many years ago that B lymphocyte activation requires two signals (Bretscher and Cohn, Science 169:1042-1049 (1970)) and now it is believed that all lymphocytes require two signals for their optimal activation, an antigen specific or clonal signal, as well as a second, antigen non-specific signal (Janeway, supra). Freeman et al. (J. Immunol. 143(8):2714-2722 (1989)) isolated and sequenced a cDNA clone encoding a B cell activation antigen recognized by mAb B7 (Freeman et al., J. Immunol. 138:3260 (1987)). COS cells transfected with this cDNA have been shown to stain by both labeled mAb B7 and mAb BB-1 (Clark et al., Human Immunol. 16:100-113 (1986); Yokochi et al., J. Immunol. 128:823 (1981)); Freeman et al., (1989) supra; and Freedman et al., (1987), supra)). In addition, expression of this antigen has been detected on cells of other lineages, such as monocytes (Freeman et al., supra).
The signals required for a T helper cell (T.sub.h) antigenic response are provided by antigen-presenting cells (APC). The first signal is initiated by interaction of the T cell receptor complex (Weiss, J. Clin. Invest. 86:1015 (1990)) with antigen presented in the context of class II major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules on the APC (Allen, Immunol. Today 8:270 (1987)). This antigen-specific signal is not sufficient to generate a full response, and in the absence of a second signal may actually lead to clonal inactivation or anergy (Schwartz, Science 248:1349 (1990)). The requirement for a second "costimulatory" signal provided by the MHC has been demonstrated in a number of experimental systems (Schwartz, supra; Weaver and Unanue, Immunol. Today 11:49 (1990)). The molecular nature of this second signal(s) is not completely understood, although it is clear in some cases that both soluble molecules such as interleukin (IL)-1 (Weaver and Unanue, supra) and membrane receptors involved in intercellular adhesion (Springer, Nature 346:425 (1990)) can provide costimulatory signals.
CD28 antigen, a homodimeric glycoprotein of the immunoglobulin superfamily (Aruffo and Seed, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 84:8573-8577 (1987)), is an accessory molecule found on most mature human T cells (Damle et al., J. Immunol. 131:2296-2300 (1983)). Current evidence suggests that this molecule functions in an alternative T cell activation pathway distinct from that initiated by the T-cell receptor complex (June et al., Mol. Cell. Biol. 7:4472-4481 (1987)). Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) reactive with CD28 antigen can augment T cell responses initiated by various polyclonal stimuli (reviewed by June et al., supra). These stimulatory effects may result from mAb-induced cytokine production (Thompson et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci 86:1333-1337 (1989); and Lindsten et al., Science 244:339-343 (1989)) as a consequence of increased mRNA stabilization (Lindsten et al., (1989), supra). Anti-CD28 mAbs can also have inhibitory effects, i.e., they can block autologous mixed lymphocyte reactions (Damle et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 78:5096-6001 (1981)) and activation of antigen-specific T cell clones (Lesslauer et al., Eur. J. Immunol. 16:1289-1296 (1986)).
Studies have shown that CD28 is a counter-receptor for the B cell activation antigen, B7/BB-1 (Linsley et al, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 87:5031-5035 (1990)). For convenience the B7/BB-1 antigen is hereafter referred to as the "B7 antigen". The B7 ligands are also members of the immunoglobulin superfamily but have, in contrast to CD28 and CTLA4, two Ig domains in their extracellular region, an N-terminal variable (V)-like domain followed by a constant (C)-like domain.
An important non-specific costimulatory signal is delivered to the T cell when there are at least two homologous B7 family members found on APC's, B7-1 (also called B7 or CD80) and B7-2 (also called CD86), both of which can deliver costimulatory signals to T cells via either CD28 or CTLA4. Costimulation through CD28 or CTLA4 is essential for T cell activation since a soluble Ig fusion protein of CTLA4 (CTLA4Ig) has successfully been used to block T cell activation events in vitro and in vivo. Failure to deliver this second signal may lead to clonal inactivation or T cell anergy.
Interactions between CD28 and B7 antigen have been characterized using genetic fusions of the extracellular portions of B7 antigen and CD28 receptor, and Immunoglobulin (Ig) C.gamma.1 (constant region heavy chains) (Linsley et al, J. Exp. Med. 173:721-730 (1991)). Immobilized B7Ig fusion protein, as well as B7 positive CHO cells, have been shown to costimulate T cell proliferation.
T cell stimulation with B7 positive CHO cells also specifically stimulates increased levels of transcripts for IL-2. Additional studies have shown that anti-CD28 mAb inhibited IL-2 production induced in certain T cell leukemia cell lines by cellular interactions with a B cell leukemia line (Kohno et al., Cell. Immunol. 131-1-10 (1990)).
CD28 has a single extracellular variable region (V)-like domain (Aruffo and Seed, supra). A homologous molecule, CTLA4 has been identified by differential screening of a murine cytolytic-T cell cDNA library (Brunet et al., Nature 328:267-270 (1987)).
Transcripts of the CTLA4 molecule have been found in T cell populations having cytotoxic activity, suggesting that CTLA4 might function in the cytolytic response (Brunet et al., supra; and Brunet et al., Immunol. Rev. 103-21-36 (1988)). Researchers have reported the cloning and mapping of a gene for the human counterpart of CTLA4 (Dariavach et al., Eur. J. Immunol. 18:1901-1905 (1988)) to the same chromosomal region (2q33-34) as CD28 (Lafage-Pochitaloff et al., Immunogenetics 31:198-201 (1990)). An Ig fusion of CTLA4 binds to B7-1 with .apprxeq.20 fold higher avidity than a corresponding Ig fusion of CD28.
Sequence comparison between this human CTLA4 DNA and that encoding CD28 proteins reveals significant homology of sequence, with the greatest degree of homology in the juxtamembrane and cytoplasmic regions (Brunet et al., 1988, supra; Dariavach et al., 1988, supra).
The high degree of homology between CD28 and CTLA4, together with the co-localization of their genes, raises questions as to whether these molecules are also functionally related. However, since the protein product of CTLA4 has not yet been successfully expressed, these questions remain unanswered.
Expression of soluble derivatives of cell-surface glycoproteins in the immunoglobulin gene superfamily has been achieved for CD4, the receptor for HIV-1, and CD28 and B7 receptors, using hybrid fusion molecules consisting of DNA sequences encoding amino acids corresponding to portions of the extracellular domain of CD4 receptor fused to antibody domains (immunoglobulin .gamma.1 (Capon et al., Nature 337:525-531 (1989) (CD4) and Linsley et al., J. Exp. Med., supra (CD28 and B7)).
There is a need for molecules which can identify in vitro B7 positive B cells, i.e., activated B cells, for leukocyte typing and FAC sorting. Further, there is a need for molecules which may be used to prevent the rejection of organ transplants and inhibit the symptoms associated with lupus erythematosus and other autoimmune diseases. In the past, major therapies relied on panimmunosuppressive drugs, such as cyclosporine A or monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) to CD3 to prevent organ transplants or inhibit symptoms of lupus. Unfortunately, these drugs must frequently be taken for the life of the individual, depress the entire immune system, and often produce secondary health ailments such as increased frequency of infections and cancer.